quarta-feira, 14 de maio de 2025.
The thousand-year period called the Middle Ages, from the 5th to the 15th century , was rich in educational experiences, especially through schools. This period took on the classical heritage, zied it and synthesised it with the Christian faith. Initially, the education of the new Christian generations took place through the catechumenate , which developed into real theological schools . As early as the second century, we can see the existence of parochial or priestly schools . Over the centuries, monastic, episcopal, cathedral and palace schools emerged . Among these, the monastic school stands out, which can rightly be called a Catholic school by antonomasia, as it is emblematic of all the others and for all times. Anyone wishing to learn about Catholic education should study the history of education, with particular attention to education in monasteries - we say education because it is a much broader phenomenon than what we conceive of as a school today.
As soon as the Divine Master ordered the apostles to go into all the world teaching the truths necessary for salvation, the Church began to spread throughout the land. At the same time, while reaching the ends of the earth, the Church had to face internal and external trials. Internally, the Church faced heresies, combating errors and teaching the truth. Externally, the Roman Empire unleashed fierce persecutions, which lasted for three whole centuries and were followed by barbarian invasions.
At the same time, legions of men and women, fleeing the turbulence of the world and aiming to lead a life entirely dedicated to God, left everything they owned and went into the deserts, dedicated to prayer, penance and work . The monks are the successors of the martyrs when it comes to offering their lives, the former by blood, the latter by the daily holocaust. This is what we might call the monastic movement .
In the beginning, the monks gathered around an elderly monk, but continued to live as hermits. The father of this lifestyle, called anchoritism, was St Anthony. A little later, the life of the monks was organised in common under a rule, and the father of cenobitism, the name given to this phenomenon, was Saint Pacomius. Many cenobiums or monasteries sprang up and spread throughout the world . In the East, St Basil the Great was responsible for unifying monasticism under one rule. In the West, however, it was the rule written by St Benedict that prevailed.
Since the Desert Fathers , in other words, since the beginnings of monasticism, the centre of life was the Divine Office, which coincided with the singing of the Psalms and the reading and meditation of Sacred Scripture. The rules of monasticism do not legislate on pedagogy , nor do they even provide direct guidelines for schools, but it is known that monasteries have always been a place of science and erudition . And it all started with contact with the Holy Scriptures . To do this, every monk had to be able to read and write, as well as memorise the sacred texts . In addition, they had to sing the chants in the choir, for which they learnt chant.
The monks took over the heritage of the ancients and with it their educational model. And since music was the last stage of the Quadrivium, it presupposed the whole journey, as well as not being an end in itself, since the Trivium and Quadrivium were aimed at philosophy and theology. The purpose of this order was to prepare and perfect the monk for the service of the Lord . The first step, however, was reading, writing and memorising, and along with this first formation, the consolidation of the virtues. For this reason, the Quadrivium took place as needed and singing was practised from an early age.
Among the jobs in a monastery, intellectual or cultural work had a privileged place. Monasteries not only produced culture, but preserved it from the threat of its disappearance. The purpose of reading and writing was to preserve and propagate books . There was an exclusive place for this work, the so-called scriptorium . Libraries, in turn, stored not only the books produced in the monastery, but also those that the abbots endeavoured to acquire. They were so valuable that there are reports that when forced to flee by a barbarian attack, the monks took only the books with them .
However, the mainstay of this order of the school in the service of the Lord was the formation of virtuous men, that is, holy men. For this reason, the pueri oblati, children handed over by their parents to be educated by the monks, were entrusted to the care of an elderly monk, whose first and most substantial lessons were the virtues through the lives of the saints, in which the figure of the hero - who is the martyr, the confessor of the faith, the virtuous man, the saint - was emphasised, to be admired and imitated. And not without this teaching, grammar was taught. The monastic school was soon divided into two realities, the internal and the external, exclusively for the training of future monks, but also, outside the cloister, for the education of seculars.
Six hours a day were dedicated to studies, there were no school holidays, holy days were kept, which were numerous . Until the age of 12 or 13, studies centred on literary genres: historical narratives, sermons, songs and florileggios. Grammar, which took up most of the time, was aligned with the teaching of virtues. Among the pedagogical functions that existed in the monastic school, we can highlight that of the Magister Principalis and the assistant teachers, that of the person responsible for teaching singing who was also the librarian and the custodian, responsible for surveillance.
In the 12th century, the curriculum of the monastic school was as follows: it had the Scriptures and the Fathers as its higher education, for which they prepared the liberal arts. Philosophy referred to all the human sciences and could be divided into theoretical (theology, physics and maths), practical (morals, economics and politics), logical (grammar, dialectics and rhetoric) and mechanical (woollen industry, agriculture, medicine, hunting, etc). It doesn't take much effort to realise that all this generated an immense intellectual, scientific and written output, veritable treatises and collections, not only of theology, but of exact, physical and natural sciences, medicine, architecture and engineering, music, technical and professional schools.
The monks were educators of everyone, the poor and the elite, the barbarians and Europeans. The emergence of the episcopal school, which finds its roots in St Augustine, was due to the monastic life that the saint led and shared with his disciples. Later, the palace school arose out of the need for a school education, since monastic schools received children indiscriminately, thus lacking specific attention for the elite. This palace school would rely on monks for its consolidation. And what can we say about the Monastery of St Victor, whose contemplative excellence has left us sublime pedagogical principles for all times .
There is still a lot to be said about monastic education, the pedagogical principles of the rule, the figure of the teacher and the student, the content of the subjects, the pedagogical works that will emerge over the centuries, the monastic pedagogical method, the journey in the monastery and the fruits of this education, the best and most savoury of which are the saints. These are topics, among others, for future articles. It's enough for us here to note that those who entered the deserts did so ‘eager to be instructed in the science of the saints, eager for high perfection’ . This is because Christian education has always been based on this premise: ‘The beginning of our salvation and our wisdom is therefore the fear of the Lord’ .
In his book, The Benedict Option - A Strategy for Christians in a Post-Christian World, Rod Dreher sees monastic education as a benchmark for today's times. He says: ‘The aim of monasticism was not simply to withdraw from a corrupt world in order to survive, although at various times this was one of the dimensions of the problem. But at the heart of it all was a quest for God himself. This search guided the preservation of classical teaching and pagan tradition for the monks, because they loved everything that was true and beautiful wherever it was.’
Referências
- ROPS, D. History of the Church. Vol. II. The Church of the Barbarian Times. Quadrante: São Paulo, 2014. p. 221.
- It is worth mentioning, as decisive events for this definition, the fall of the Roman Empire in the year 476 AD and the so-called Renaissance, which coincides with the return to the pagan classics in the 15th century. With the fall of the Roman Empire began the rise of Western Civilization. The opposite process occurred with the Renaissance—an indiscriminate revival of pagan culture, particularly the Greek one. In fact, the Renaissance was already a symptom of decline, whose deepest roots lie in matters of the soul and are intrinsically linked to the decline of education itself. A. D. P. Rosa, in the work The Code of Education. A True Story (Pie Pellicane: Florianópolis, 2022), greatly helps in understanding this assertion. It is also worth noting that the term "Middle Ages," as something between two poles, is insufficient to define the entire millennium shaped by Christian culture, whose most effective instrument was education.
- The catechumenate was the period of instruction that preceded the sacraments of Christian Initiation; it involved teachings, rituals, and mystagogies, and generally lasted about three years. During this period, which spans approximately three centuries, the Holy Fathers had the primary concern of solidly instructing the new Christians through homilies, catecheses, and writings. They were also concerned with forming those who would teach the catechumens. Special attention is given to Saint Augustine’s work De Catechizandis Rudibus, that is, The Instruction of the Catechumens.
- The theological schools are a development of the catechumenate, and several factors contributed to their emergence, among which we can list: the consolidation of the catechumenate itself, the diligence of bishops in providing solid formation to Christian generations, the conversion of pagan philosophers to the Christian faith, the desire to deepen and elucidate the Christian mysteries, and the need to defend against attacks from pagans as well as to combat emerging heresies. The most representative of these schools were Alexandria and Antioch, though others were established elsewhere, including in Rome at a later time. The core of these schools was Sacred Scripture, and pagan disciplines such as grammar and even philosophy served as propaedeutics to theology.
- These schools could be compared to those of primary education. The presbyters are the collaborators of the bishops—educators par excellence. And just as the diocese is governed by the bishop, the parish is governed by a presbyter, who also has the duty to teach. From very early on, Christian families turned to the pastors for the education of their children. With the fall of the Empire, the official schools would collapse, but even before that, two phenomena must be noted: the education provided by the Empire was not a consolidated and widespread phenomenon—there was still a strong presence of private tutors, which was only accessible to wealthier families; alongside this, there was also the concern of parents regarding the pagan teaching given to their children, which led them to seek out the pastors. This would make religious education the standard by which the educational heritage of the Greeks and Romans would be measured. Parochial schools generally taught the foundational disciplines: reading, arithmetic, writing, the singing of Psalms, and of course, the principal truths of the faith and the Christian way of life. This model of school is known to have existed as early as the 2nd century, with Protogenes of Edessa.
- This process spans centuries and is complex. For example, cathedral schools—that is, those attached to churches and overseen by the bishop—can already be seen with Saint Augustine once he was elected bishop of Hippo. From this school, in fact, records show that around ten bishops emerged, who, once in their own dioceses, would also take similar initiatives. The model established by Saint Augustine, however, had a monastic character.
- Later on, the episcopal or cathedral schools would also aim at the formation of the clergy, but they would go on to develop, beyond the intermediate and higher curricula—such as philosophy and theology—other disciplines like canon and civil law. From these schools, more properly, the universities would eventually develop.
- Palatine schools, on the other hand, arose as a sort of response to two phenomena: a certain decline in the schools and studies, and the need to specifically educate the elites, since monks would indiscriminately accept students, whether rich or poor. Charlemagne’s concern and his educational reform stemmed from both observations. A monk, Alcuin of York, was Charlemagne’s right hand in his educational reform.
- In this regard, the account of Saint Anthony's vocation written by Saint Athanasius (Vita Antonii, Chapter 2) is emblematic.
- From its very beginnings, the monastic movement was marked by great richness and diversity. Despite prominent figures such as Saint Anthony and Saint Pachomius in its early stages, and Saint Basil and Saint Benedict in its consolidation and expansion, the list is countless—from the Desert Fathers to the many abbots and abbesses—a multitude of saints who would emerge throughout the centuries.
- Thus, it is important, first of all, to clarify the meaning of the expressions that belong to this great movement that is monasticism:
- Monk comes from monachos, from monos, meaning alone, solitary, isolated—that is, one who dedicates himself entirely to prayer and meditation.
- Hermit comes from eremos, meaning desert or wilderness; it is equivalent to monk, but refers to the place rather than the condition.
- Anchorite comes from anakhōretai, meaning "to withdraw"—to the wilderness, to the desert. It refers to a monk who lived where other monks also lived, but without a common rule; it could happen under the guidance of a more experienced monk.
- Cenobite, from koinobion, means “common life”; it refers to a community where a monk lives with others under an abbot and a common rule, in a cenobium or monastery.
- Abbot means “father,” a term derived from the Hebrew abba. He was the superior of the monastic community—also under the common rule—but with the specific duties of spiritual fatherhood in terms of providing for and forming the monks.
- The monastic movement had its origin in the deserts of Egypt and from there spread throughout the East—to Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor. In the West, its spread began in Gaul, then to England and Italy, eventually reaching Spain.
- This expression refers to the Fathers of monasticism—that is, the very first to withdraw into the deserts, who attracted disciples, above all by the example of their lives, but also by the soundness of their doctrine. Moreover, their fame spread not only because of their witness and teaching, but also due to the works and miracles they performed.
- It is possible to draw pedagogical principles from the Rule of Saint Benedict, as well as from all the other rules (such as those of Saint Pachomius, Saint Basil, etc.).
- "The medieval monastery was always a hearth of culture." (H.-I. Marrou, History of Education in Antiquity, Kirion: Campinas, 2017, p. 534)
- Whether it be the chanting of the Psalms or the Lectio Divina, a literate character is required. The Rule of Saint Pachomius already stipulated that a monk should be able to recite from memory at least 20 Psalms and 2 Epistles; to achieve this, instruction began with reading and writing (Rule 139–140). Saint Patrick, the missionary monk, linked the celebration of baptism to the gift of the alphabet. Saint Caesarius of Arles required that nuns also be able to read and write, dedicate two hours a day to reading, and copy manuscripts. Saint Benedict, in his Rule, provides for the admission and education of children, devotes extended time to reading, and even includes school furnishings.
- "That which has taken deep root in the memory can hardly be erased." (Cassiodorus, Institutiones, p. 21). Medieval education is founded not upon imagination, but upon memory. In this regard, the study by Mary Carruthers, The Book of Memory (Kirion: Campinas, 2022), is particularly insightful.
- The monasteries were centers of culture through their schools and libraries, and all that derived from them. The pinnacle of this cultural focus was the liturgy—the true “school of beauty.” Thus, the monks, both through their teaching and by the very nature of the lives they led, “offered the barbarians a new worldview and a new vision of history” (A. Saenz, p. 258).
- “It is a blessed task and a praiseworthy zeal to preach to men with the hand, to communicate with the fingers, to make the silent gift of salvation to mortals, and to combat the devil’s temptations with pen and ink.” (Cassiodorus, Institutiones, apud J. Le Goff, Men and Women of the Middle Ages, p. 47).
- In this regard, it is fitting to become acquainted with Cassiodorus's Vivarium, whose experience became fundamental for the recognition of intellectual work.
- The libraries were “the most precious treasures to the religious.” (R. A. Bello, p. 27).
- The school calendar was the ecclesiastical calendar—they were one and the same.
- R. de Ayres Bello, A Short History of Education, Liceu: Sertanópolis, 2020, p. 147.
- C. S. Jaeger, The Envy of Angels, Kirion: Campinas, 2019, pp. 281–307. Hugh of Saint Victor, Fundamental Principles of Pedagogy, Centro Cultural Hugo de São Vítor: Foz do Iguaçu, 2019.
- Saint John Cassian, Conferences 20, 2.
- Proverbs 9:10. Cf. Ephesians 6:4; Colossians 3:21.
- Ecclesiae: Campinas, 2021, p. 176.
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